Ecological Theory

The Ecological Model states that human behavior results from the ongoing, dynamic interaction between the person and the environment.

Bronfenbrenner identified four major subsystems that influence human behavior.

1. The Microsystem: Interpersonal interactions within a given environment, such as home, school, or work setting.
2. The Mesosystem: Interaction between two or more microsystems, such as the relation between an individual's school and his or her work environment.
3. The Exosystem: Linkage between subsystems that indirectly influence the individual, such as one's neighborhood or the media.
4. The Macrosystem: Ideological components of a given society, including norms and values.

The Ecological Model recognizes that humans live interactionally in a social environment.

Career behavior is thought to be determined by the interrelationships between the subsystems in a larger ecosystem. 

• Clients bring their ecosystems into counseling primarily by conveying how they understand and react to their circumstances.

The careful assessment of the client's ecosystem determines how and where career counseling interventions can be most effectively implemented for an individual.

Helpful Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4OQQYyA--E 

Transition Model

Schlossberg's Adult Career Developmental Transition Model:
Provides a systematic framework for mental health professionals/social workers/others as they listen to many stories. The transitions and individuals differ, but the structure for understanding transition remains the same.

The transition model has three major parts.

1. Approaching the transition; transition identification and process.
2. Identifying coping resources.
3. Emphasizing strategies that can be used to take charge of the transition.

Approaching Transition:

• Anticipated transition: caused by unexpected events that occur as part of one's life cycle.
• Unanticipated transition: caused by life events that are not predictable. (Not planned for)
• Nonevent transition: caused by events that were anticipated and planned but did not happen.

Transition Process: Wile in transitions, clients pass through a series of identifiable phases.

• Disbelief, sense of betrayal, confusion, anger, and resolution.

Factors that influence transitions.

• The situation
• The self
• Support
• Strategies

Clients involved in transitions usually need assistance moving on, it is important to help them develop problem-solving, decision-making, and coping skills.

Helpful link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqekfDI4j0U&list=PLXSwj3cW6NWg6rsdxn4SuQlBwGZkabvKA&index=2 

Learning Theory

Krumboltz developed the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC) to guide counselors in constructing career development interventions to help clients cope more effectively with career concerns.

• LTCC is based on the application of Bandura's social learning theory to career decision making.

Counselors use LTCC to help clients:

• Acquire more accurate self-observation generalizations,
• Auire more accurate worldview generalizations.
• Learn new task approach skills.
• Take appropriate career-related actions.

Four Fundamental Trends:

• People need to expand capabilities/interest, not base decisions on characteristics only.
• Need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume occupations will remain stable.
• Need to be empowered to take action, not merely by diagnosis.
• Career counselors need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection.

Krumboltz divides career development interventions into two categories:

• Developmental and preventive:
• career education programs
• school to work initiatives
• job clubs
• study material
• simulations (ie. job shadowing, internships)
• Targeted and material:
• goal clarification
• cognitive restructuring
• cognitive rehearsal
• narrative analysis
• paradoxical intention

Krumboltz developed the Career Beliefs Inventory (CBI) to help counselors identify problematic client beliefs related to each of the career problem categories. It is based on the rationale that people make career decisions according to what they believe about themselves and the world of work. (most useful when administered at the beginning of career counseling)

• The 5 headings that describe categories of beliefs (designed to help identify self-limiting thought about career options0:
• My current career situation
• What seems necessary for my happiness
• Factors that influence my decisions
• Changes I am willing to make
• Effort I am willing to initiate

Planned Happenstance Theory (Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz): describes chance factors or unexpected life events.

• Contrasts with rational planning or matching strategies of career counseling.
• We can prepare for and even create opportunities for unexpected events.

• Career Counselors assist clients in developing 5 skills:
• Curiosity
• Persistence
• Flexibility
• Optimism
• Risk-taking

• Counselor and client interaction that intentionally addresses the role of chance in career development help to normalize such occurrences, help clients see their thematic influence upon their career development, and help clients be increasingly open to noticing and acting upon unplanned events in the future.

Krumboltz recommends reframing indecision to open-mindedness so that clients can view indecision as a desirable quality for motivation to engage in new learning activities.

Helpful Link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8C93zR1UJI 

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory assumes that people's personalities and behavioral habits can be explained most usefully on the basis of their unique learning experiences while still acknowledging the role played by innate and developmental processes. (Mitchell & Krumboltz)

• It also assumes that humans are intelligent, problem-solving who strive at all times to understand the reinforcement that surrounds them and who in turn control their environments to suit their own purposes and needs. 

Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM) explains the origins of career choice.

• Identifies four factors that influence our career decision making.
• Genetic endowment and special abilities.
• Genetic endowments are inherited qualities. (physical traits)
• Special abilities are a result from interactions between genetic factors and exposure to environmental events.
• Environmental Conditions and events.
• Factors are outside of our control. (Cultural, geographical, social, political, and economic forces)
• Instrumental and associative learning experiences.
• Involve antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.
• Instrumental Learning Experiences: Involves reward and punishment.
• Associative Learning Experiences: Involves neutral experiences paired with a positive/negative stimulus or consequence.
• Task Approach Skills.
• Individuals work habits, mental set, emotional responses, cognitive processes, and problem-solving skills. (how individuals approach completing tasks.

In result of the interaction of the four factors people develop.

• Self-Observation Generalizations:
• Evaluation (covert/overt) of one's own performance or assessment of interests and values.
• Worldview Generalization:
• Observations about the environment (nature and functioning of the world).
• Task Approach Skills:
• Cognitive and performance abilities and emotional predispositions for coping with the environment, interpreting it in relation to self-observation generalizations, and making covert and overt predictions about future events.
• Actions:
• Learning experiences eventually lead individuals to take actions related to entering a career.

Self-Efficacy

• Efficacy expectancy: self-judgments.
• Outcome expectations: personal beliefs that behaviors will lead to certain outcomes.

Helpful Link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EAzEJUFUHeA